Zdobycie Konstantynopola przez Turków osmańskich w 1453 roku uznaje się bądz za wydarzanie wyznaczające c ostateczny kies cesarstwa rzymskiego, bądz tez jedynie za akt wchłonięcia zbędnego reliktu historii przez nowe, ekspansjonistyczne imperium. Oba tu poglądy są w istocie błędne; należy też pamiętać, że nie wolno rozpatrywać tego wydarzenia z jednej tylko perspektywy. Faktyczne znaczenie klęski Konstantynopola w 1453 roku wiąże się nie z upadkiem starożytnego porządku, lecz z narodzinami czegoś zupełnie nowego: imperium osmańskiego w pełnym jego kształcie, państwa,, które miało przetrwać aż do 1922 roku.

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Natalia B. Teteriatnikov - Mosaics of Haghia Sophi a; The Fossati Restoration and the Work of the Byz antine Institute (1998).jpg

Byzantium - Natalia B. Teteriatnikov - Mosaics of Haghia Sophia Th...toration and the Work of the Byzantine Institute 1998.jpg

Drawing on material housed in the Dumbarton Oaks Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, this catalog records two periods of work that uncovered the mosaics of Hagia Sophia after having been covered with whitewash and plaster for 400 years. The photographs and drawings record the procedures used and the results of these projects carried out in 1848-49 by the architects Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati and later in 193149 by the Byzantine Institute. These records have proved to be important for the study of these major works of Byzantine art and for documenting the efforts exerted in preserving these mosaics and disseminating information about them.

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Natalia B. Teteriatnikov - Mosaics of Haghia Sophi a; The Fossati Restoration and the Work of the Byz antine Institute (1998).pdf

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Lynda Garland - Byzantine Empresses; Women and Pow er in Byzantium, AD 527-1204 (2002).jpg

Byzantine Empresses provides a series of biographical portraits of the most significant Byzantine women who ruled or shared the throne between 527 and 1204. It presents and analyses the available historical data in order to outline what these empresses did, what the sources thought they did, and what they wanted to do.

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Lynda Garland - Byzantine Empresses; Women and Pow er in Byzantium, AD 527-1204 (2002).pdf

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Kathryn M. Ringrose - The Perfect Servant; Eunuchs and the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantiu m (2003).jpg

Byzantium - Kathryn M. Ringrose - The Perfect Servant Eunuchs and ...nd the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium 2003.jpg

The Perfect Servant reevaluates the place of eunuchs in Byzantium. Kathryn Ringrose uses the modern concept of gender as a social construct to identify eunuchs as a distinct gender and to illustrate how gender was defined in the Byzantine world. At the same time she explores the changing role of the eunuch in Byzantium from 600 to 1100.

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Andreas Stylianou, Judith A. Stylianou - The Paint ed Churches of Cyprus; Treasures of Byzantine Art (1997).jpg

In a large number of rural churches in Cyprus wallpaintings have survived which are not only of great value in themselves but also provide a most precious documentation of the development of Byzantine art Every period and style from the sixth to the eighteenth century is represented. Many are precisely dated. No other area of comparable size Can offer so comprehensive a series.
Andreas and Judith Stylianou are internationally recognised as great experts on this subject. They have devoted a lifetime of research to it. not only in Cyprus but throughout the area of surviving Byzantine culture. Both of them have written monographs and essays on Byzantine art and presented papers to international congresses. Andreas Stylianou was responsible for the introduction to the volume c'vprus, Byzantine Mosaics
and Frescoes, published in the UNESCO World Art Series in 1963. The Painted Churches oj Cyprus is the culmination of their long and careful studies which have finally restored the work of Cypriot painters to its proper place among the cultural achievements of the world.
It is the authors' aim, while providing the fullest scholarly documentation of the whole range of Byzantine mural painting in Cyprus, to give lovers of art in general an insight into the special merits of that school of art.
A full bibliography of their publications is included in this book. Their most recent production is a monumental work on The History of the Cartography of Cyprus, the result of pioneering research in European libraries.
The present work has been sponsored by the A.G. Leventis Foundation. an organisation with the purpose of assisting, among other thing.~, the publication of works of scholarly value related to the cultural heritage of Cyprus.
Over 300 illustracions

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Andreas Stylianou, Judith A. Stylianou - The Paint ed Churches of Cyprus; Treasures of Byzantine Art (1997).pdf

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Angeliki E. Laiou - The Econiomic history of Byzan tium; From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Centu ry (2002).jpg

Byzantium - Angeliki E. Laiou - The Econiomic history of Byzantium...m From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century 2002.jpg

Preface

The idea of producing a book on the economic history of the Byzantine Empire was ﬁrst ﬂoated some years ago, when the late and much regretted Nicholas Svoronos, who would have played a major role, was still alive. A number of unfavorable circumstances did not allow us to proceed further. Eventually, that ﬁrst idea was revisited, was invested with substance, and became reality; the volumes at hand are the result. The successful completion of this large and difﬁcult project is owed to the enlightened interest, indeed commitment, of certain individuals and institutions whose contribution has been decisive. The institutional sponsors are the Bank of Greece and the Union of Greek Banks, while the Cultural Foundation of the National Bank of Greece (MIET) has been responsible for the practical aspects of the coordination and for the publication of the Greek edition.

Efthymios Christodoulou, who was governor of the Bank of Greece when support for the project was being sought, had always shown great interest in the history of the Byzantine economy, for he realizes the importance of Byzantium in the history of humankind, and therefore the need for a global examination of the economy that formed the underpinnings of the state and culture of Byzantium. His enthusiasm was expressed through his continued encouragement and moral support, and it took material form in the considerable contribution of the Bank of Greece in ﬁnancing the project.

The late Manolis Kasdaglis, director for many years of the Cultural Foundation of the National Bank of Greece, was one of the ﬁrst individuals to conceive the idea of such a project and gave his unwavering support to its realization. It is a matter of deep regret that his untimely death did not allow him to see the publication of this book.

The late Michael Vranopoulos, when he was chairman of the Union of Greek Banks, also expressed interest in the project; we owe the participation of the Union in the sponsorship of the project to him and to the Governing Board of the Union. Successive governors and directors of the Bank of Greece and the Union of Greek Banks respectively showed unﬂagging interest and facilitated our work in a number of ways. I should like to thank Loukas Papademos, currently governor of the Bank of Greece, and Georgios Mirkos, former governor of the National Bank of Greece. Special thanks are owed to Theodoros Karatzas, currently governor of the National Bank of Greece and chairman of the Union of Greek Banks, for his unwavering support and for making decisive contributions which ensured that the project would reach completion. I am particularly grateful to Yiannis Manos, former general secretary of the Union of Greek Banks, for his manifold help. I am also happy to acknowledge the support of the governing boards of the Union of Greek Banks and MIET.

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Angeliki E. Laiou - The Econiomic history of Byzan tium; From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Centu ry (2002).pdf

The Scholarly Committee, consisting of Cecile Morrisson, Charalambos Bouras, Nicolas Oikonomides, and Constantine Pitsakis, collaborated in exemplary fashion on theorganinzation and realization of the project. Along with their contribution to general issues, members of the committee had editorial supervision of speciﬁc chapters: N. Oikonomides of the chapters on the agrarian economy, Ch. Bouras of those on the urban economy, C. Morrisson of the chapters on commerce, and C. Pitsakis of the chapters that treat legal issues. I am particularly grateful to C. Morrisson, who gave generous and valuable help, reading and commenting on chapters for which she was not formally responsible. I bear the responsibility for the supervision of the entire work.

I should like to thank a number of economists—Vassilis Droukopoulos, Georgios Krimbas, Georgios Liodakis, and Stavros Thomadakis—who, at an early stage of the project, participated in a workshop and contributed, with their knowledge of the science of economics, to the better conceptualization of the topics with which we were dealing.

Given the large number of participants, the work of coordination was immense and difﬁcult. I should like to thank the staff of MIET, and most particularly Olga Drosinou, forthe assistance they provided. Agamemnon Tselikas and Demetrios Kyritses helped with the illustrations, and I am grateful to them. I should also like to thank Charles Dibble for his contribution to the onerous task of checking the translations. Finally, I should like to thank all of the authors for their contribution to this collective effort. Their scholarship, their enthusiasm for the project, and the patience they showed throughout our lengthy collaboration made a difﬁcult task pleasant and productive.

Angeliki E. Laiou

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J. B. Bury - History of the Later Roman Empire; fr om the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justi nian, Volume 1 (1923).jpg

Byzantium - J. B. Bury - History of the Later Roman Empire from th...Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian, Volume 1 1923.jpg

PREFACE

The first of these two volumes might be entitled the "German Conquest of Western Europe," and the second the "Age of Justinian." The first covers more than one hundred and twenty years, the second somewhat less than fifty. This disparity is a striking illustration of the fact that perspective and proportion are unavoidably lost in an attempt to tell the story of any considerable period of ancient or early medieval history as fully as our sources allow. Perspective can be preserved only in an outline. The fifth century was one of the most critical periods in the history of Europe. It was crammed with events of great moment, and the changes which it witnessed transformed Europe more radically than any set of political events that have happened since. At that time hundreds of people were writing abundantly on all kinds of subjects, and many of their writings have survived; but among these there is no history of contemporary events, and the story has had to be pieced together from fragments, jejune chronicles, incidental references in poets, rhetoricians, and theologians. Inscribed stones which supply so much information for the first four centuries of the Roman Empire are rare. Nowhere, since the time of Alexander the Great, do we feel so strongly that the meagreness of the sources flouts the magnitude of the events.

Battles, for instance, were being fought continually, but no full account of a single battle is extant. We know much more of the Syrian campaigns of Thothmes III in the fifteenth century B.C. than we know of the campaigns of Stilicho or Aetius or Theoderic. The Roman emperors, statesmen, and generals are dim figures, some of them mere names. And as to the barbarian leaders who were forging the destinies of Europe — Alaric, Athaulf, Wallia, Gaiseric, Attila, and the rest — we can form little or no idea of their personalities; τοὶ δὲ σκιαὶ ἀίσσουσιν. Historians of the Church are somewhat better off. The personalities of Augustine and Jerome, for instance, do emerge. Yet here, too, there is much obscurity. To understand the history of the Ecumenical Councils, we want much more than the official Acts. We want the background, and of it we can only see enough to know that these Councils resembled modern political conventions, that the arts of lobbying were practised, and that intimidation and bribery were employed to force theological arguments.

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J. B. Bury - History of the Later Roman Empire; fr om the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justi nian, Volume 1 (1923).pdf

Although we know little of the details of the process by which the western provinces of the Empire became German kingdoms, one fact stands out. The change of masters was not the result of anything that could be called a cataclysm. The German peoples, who were much fewer in numbers than is often imagined, at first settled in the provinces as dependents, and a change which meant virtually conquest was disguised for a shorter or longer time by their recognition of the nominal rights of the Emperor. Britain, of which we know less than of any other part of the Empire at this period, seems to have been the only exception to this rule. The consequence was that the immense revolution was accomplished with far less violence and upheaval than might have been expected. This is the leading fact which it is the chief duty of the historian to make clear.

When we come to the age of Justinian we know better how and why things happened, because we have the guidance of a gifted contemporary historian whose works we possess in their entirety, and we have a large collection of the Emperor's laws. The story of Justinian's Italian wars was fully related by my friend the late Mr. Hodgkin in his attractive volume on the Imperial Restoration; and, more recently, Justinian and the Byzantine Civilisation of the Sixth Century have been the subject of a richly illustrated book by my friend M. Charles Diehl. I do not compete with them; but I believe that in my second volume the reader will find a fuller account of the events of the reign than in any other single work. I have endeavoured to supply the material which will enable him to form his own judgment on Justinian, and to have an opinion on the "question" of Theodora, of whom perhaps the utmost that we can safely say is that she was, in the words used by Swinburne of Mary Stuart, "something better than innocent."

The present work does not cover quite half the period which was the subject of my Later Roman Empire, published in 1889 and long out of print, as it is written on a much larger scale. Western affairs have been treated as fully as Eastern, and the exciting story of Justinian's reconquest of Italy has been told at length.

I have to thank my wife for help of various kinds; Mr. Ashby, the Director of the British School at Rome, for reading the proof-sheets of Vol. I; and Mr. Norman Baynes for reading those of some chapters of Vol. II. I must also record my obligations, not for the first time, to the readers of Messrs. R. and R. Clark, whose care and learning have sensibly facilitated the progress of the book through the press.

J. B. Bury

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David Nicolle - Nicopolis 1396 (2001).jpg

By the second half of the 14th century, the once mighty Byzantine Empire had been reduced to little more than the city of Constantinople. In 1391 the Ottoman ruler Sultan Bayazid I 'The Lightning' besieged the city. Pope Boniface IX preached a crusade and a French-led army of 10,000 marched east. At Nicopolis they met the Ottoman army in battle. Ignoring the advice of their Hungarian and Transylvanian allies the Crusaders charged the Turks and were in turn smashed by the Ottoman heavy cavalry. This book details how the last Crusade ended on the banks of the Danube as the Crusaders desperately sought to escape from the pursuing Turks.

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Osprey - Essential Histories 33 - John Halden - By zantium at War AD 600-1453 (2003).jpg

Byzantium survived for 800 years, yet its dominions and power fluctuated dramatically during that time. John Haldon tells the story from the days when the Empire was barely clinging on to survival, to the age when its fabulous wealth attracted Viking mercenaries and Asian nomad warriors to its armies, their very appearance on the field enough to bring enemies to terms. In 1453 the last emperor of Byzantium, Constantine XII, died fighting on the ramparts, bringing to a romantic end the glorious history of this legendary empire.

Contents
Introduction · Chronology · Background to war : The political world of Byzantium· Warring sides: Neighbours and enemies· Outbreak: Why and how did Byzantium fight wars? · The fighting: Organising for war · Portrait of a soldier: Recruitment, discipline, and life on campaign · The world around war: War and peace · Portrait of a civilian: Matrios - a farmer · How the wars ended: Death of an empire· Conclusion and consequences: War, peace, and survival · Further reading ·Byzantine rulers AD 527–1453 · Index

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Michael Maas - Companion to the Age of Justinian ( 2005).jpeg

Dominated by the policies and personality of emperor Justinian I (527-565), this period of grand achievements and far-reaching failures witnessed the transformation of the Mediterranean world from Roman to Byzantine. Twenty specialists explore the most important aspects of the age--including the mechanics and theory of empire, warfare, urbanism, and economy. They also discuss the impact of the great plague, the codification of Roman law, and the many religious upheavals taking place at the time.

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Lars Brownworth - Lost to the West; The Forgotten Byzantine Empire That Rescued Western Civilization (2009).jpg

In AD 476 the Roman Empire fell–or rather, its western half did. Its eastern half, which would come to be known as the Byzantine Empire, would endure and often flourish for another eleven centuries. Though its capital would move to Constantinople, its citizens referred to themselves as Roman for the entire duration of the empire’s existence. Indeed, so did its neighbors, allies, and enemies: When the Turkish Sultan Mehmet II conquered Constantinople in 1453, he took the title Caesar of Rome, placing himself in a direct line that led back to Augustus.For far too many otherwise historically savvy people today, the story of the Byzantine civilization is something of a void. Yet for more than a millennium, Byzantium reigned as the glittering seat of Christian civilization. When Europe fell into the Dark Ages, Byzantium held fast against Muslim expansion, keeping Christianity alive. When literacy all but vanished in the West, Byzantium made primary education available to both sexes. Students debated the merits of Plato and Aristotle and commonly committed the entirety of Homer’s Iliad to memory. Streams of wealth flowed into Constantinople, making possible unprecedented wonders of art and architecture, from fabulous jeweled mosaics and other iconography to the great church known as the Hagia Sophia that was a vision of heaven on earth. The dome of the Great Palace stood nearly two hundred feet high and stretched over four acres, and the city’s population was more than twenty times that of London’s.From Constantine, who founded his eponymous city in the year 330, to Constantine XI, who valiantly fought the empire’s final battle more than a thousand years later, the emperors who ruled Byzantium enacted a saga of political intrigue and conquest as astonishing as anything in recorded history. Lost to the West is replete with stories of assassination, mass mutilation and execution, sexual scheming, ruthless grasping for power, and clashing armies that soaked battlefields with the blood of slain warriors numbering in the tens of thousands.Still, it was Byzantium that preserved for us today the great gifts of the classical world. Of the 55,000 ancient Greek texts in existence today, some 40,000 were transmitted to us by Byzantine scribes. And it was the Byzantine Empire that shielded Western Europe from invasion until it was ready to take its own place at the center of the world stage. Filled with unforgettable stories of emperors, generals, and religious patriarchs, as well as fascinating glimpses into the life of the ordinary citizen, Lost to the West reveals how much we owe to this empire that was the equal of any in its achievements, appetites, and enduring legacy.

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Lars Brownworth - Lost to the West; The Forgotten Byzantine Empire That Rescued Western Civilization (2010).jpg

Review
“Captivating…In Lost to the West Lars Brownworth shows a novelist’s eye for character, bringing to life some of the most fascinating — and yet little known -- figures of the Byzantine era. But it is as a researcher into the obscurities of palace intrigue, treachery, and battlefield carnage that Lars really shines. With dry humor and a palette of vivid images, he recounts the dizzying game of musical chairs that placed one usurper after another on the Byzantine throne, only to be pitched off in a gaudily macabre way. In the end, one is left agog by the irony that the upshot of this centuries-long scrum was the preservation of nearly all that the Greeks have bequeathed to us.”
—Steven Pressfield, author of Gates of Fire

“Rome never fell -- it simply moved five hundred miles East -- to Byzantium. For over a thousand years the Byzantines commanded one of the most visceral and vivid empires the world has ever known. And yet their achievements are consistently underplayed; written out of history. Lars Brownworth is a rare talent. His contagious passion brings murderous empresses, conniving eunuchs, lost Greek texts and Byzantine treasures of fairy-tale proportions blinking back into the light. Confidently striding through time and across the mountains and plains of the Eastern Mediterranean, Brownworth puts this theocratic superstate slap-bang in the center of mankind's global story; back where it should be. The Byzantines made our world what it is today. Lars Brownworth matches their verve and brio in his seductive and gripping account.”
—Bettany Hughes, PBS host and author of Helen of Troy

“This is history as it used to be, history as story-telling. In this fascinating account of the Byzantine empire, Lars Brownworth covers a thousand years of blood-letting, outrageous luxury, bitter religious disputes and vaulting ambition without giving the slightest impression of being rushed or crowded. The page turns unaided.”
—Anthony Everitt, bestselling author of Augustus, Cicero and The First Emperor

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A. A. Vasiliev - Justin, the First, An Introductio n to the Epoch of Justinian the Great (1950).jpg

A. A. VASILIEV. Justin the First. An Introduction to the Epoch of Justinian the Great. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1950. Pp. viii + 439. (Dumbarton Oaks Studies, I.)

To the many works of fundamental importance which he has produced in nearly sixty years of devoted scholarship, A. A. Vasiliev, the eminent and revered dean of Byzantinists, has now added a definitive study of the reign of Justin I (518-527). Careful interpretation of a wide range of sources, searching critical analysis of complicated problems, some of which are treated with almost monographic thoroughness, and convincing conclusions whenever they are possible, these are the merits of a book which should be a source of gratification and pride to a great scholar. Occasionally the machinery of investigation intrudes into the text and interrupts the smooth flow of the narrative, but the author's lively interest in his subject and his lucid exposition are assurance that the reader's attention will be stimulated and maintained. Aside from Ernest Stein's long article, "Justinus," R.-E., X (1919), cols. 1314-29, no special study until now has been devoted to the elderly emperor Justin, who has been overshadowed by his brilliant nephew and successor, Justinian. Vasiliev gives a portrayal of Justin against a background so broad that the book is also a reconstruction of the whole period. He shows how Justin was dominated by Justinian, whose rule from behind the throne began from the moment of Justin's elevation. When, in 527, Justinian became emperor, he continued policies unquestionably inaugurated under his influence during the nine years of his uncle's reign. Justinian's principal ideas, his ambitious plans for the reconquest of the west, his religious orientation as one of the foundations for his future western campaigns, his conception of a great legislative work, his building activities, all these were definitely formulated during Justin's reign. Professor Vasiliev's book, is, therefore, as the subtitle indicates, an introduction to the epoch of Justinian, and as such it will be a necessary point of departure for any new study of that period. The book consists of a brief sketch of the historical background; eight chapters devoted respectively to Justin's rise from swineherd to emperor, his domestic rule, religious policy, foreign policy (in two chapters), economic conditions, and legislation; an epilogue describing his death and burial; an excursus on the Archangel Ivory in the British Museum and the coins of Justin; and an excellent index of names and subjects, including sources and modern writers. Scholars will be grateful for the extensive notes which provide full bibliographical data. The longest, and in many respects the most interesting, chapter considers Justin's religious policy. Justinian's influence on the development of that policy is demonstrated, and the imperial efforts to enforce the Chalcedonian creed and to restore normal relations with the Pope, after the breach of 482, are very carefully analyzed. The chapter includes a translation of contemporary documents of observers at the Synod of Constantinople in 518.

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A. A. Vasiliev - Justin, the First, An Introductio n to the Epoch of Justinian the Great (1950).pdf

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A.A. Vasiliev - History of the Byzantine Empire (1 958).jpg

“Vasiliev’s survey of Byzantine history is unique in the field. It is complete, including a sketch of literature and art for each period, while all other works of the kind, even the most recent, either are restricted to a shorter time, or neglect some side of eastern civilization. . . . This widely known and highly prized History of the Byzantine Empire needs not the commendation of any reviewer. Written originally in Russian, it has been turned into English, French, Spanish, and Turkish. It has always been a favorite with students.”

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A.A. Vasiliev - History of the Byzantine Empire (1 958).pdf

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Lynda Garland - Byzantine Empresses, Women and Pow er in Byzantium, AD 527–1204 (2002).jpg

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Lynda Garland - Byzantine Empresses, Women and Pow er in Byzantium, AD 527–1204 (2002).pdf

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J. M. Hussey - The Orthodox Church in the Byzantin e Empire (2010).jpg

This book describes the role of the medieval Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire (c.600-c.1453). As an integral part of its policy it was (as in western Christianity) closely linked with many aspects of everyday life both official and otherwise. It was a formative period for Orthodoxy. It had to face doctrinal problems and heresies; at the same time it experienced the continuity and deepening of its liturgical life. While holding fast to the traditions of the fathers and the councils, it saw certain developments in doctrine and liturgy as also in administration.
Part I discusses the landmarks in ecclesiastical affairs within the Empire as well as the creative influence exercised on the Slavs and the increasing contacts with westerners particularly after 1204. Part II gives a brief account of the structure of the medieval Orthodox Church, its officials and organization, and the spirituality of laity, monks, and clergy.

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J. M. Hussey - The Orthodox Church in the Byzantin e Empire (2010).pdf

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Timothy E. Gregory - History of Byzantium (2005).jpg

This book is a concise narrative of Byzantine history from the time of Constantine the Great (AD 306) to the fall of Constantinople in 1453.

* Argues that Byzantium was important in its own right but also served as a bridge between East and West and ancient and modern society.
* Uses the chronological political history of the empire as a narrative frame.
* Considers social and economic life and the rich culture of the Byzantine Empire.
* Integrates visual documents, such as photographs of art, architecture, and implements from daily life.
* Makes the latest scholarship accessible to a wide audience.
* Includes a chronological list of emperors, a glossary and maps.

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John H. Rosser - Historical Dictionary of Byzantiu m (2001).jpg

Rosser (history, Boston Coll.), an active participant in field research related to Byzantine archaeology, begins this volume with a chronology that summarizes the history of Byzantium from its beginnings in 324 C.E. to the fall of its last outpost in 1461. This is followed by an introduction that provides concise overviews of Byzantine civilization. The dictionary proper covers people, events, and important aspects of Byzantine culture, such as art and economics, with a useful bibliography wrapping up the text. While the present volume cannot compete in scale with the three-volume Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (LJ 8/91), it does possess the advantage of access to the latest archaeological discoveries and the coherence of approach that comes from its compilation by a single author.

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John H. Rosser - Historical Dictionary of Byzantiu m (2001).pdf

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Averil Cameron - The Byzantines (2006).jpg

"Averil Cameron’s The Byzantines marks a welcome departure from most previous attempts to portray and characterize Byzantine civilization. The book focuses squarely on the people of the Byzantine Empire, their views of themselves and their culture, and how these changed over time. The result is a remarkably clear view of who the Byzantines were, and the book will contribute significantly to a restoration of Byzantium to its rightful place at the center of the historical tradition of Europe."

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