In 1838, the U.S. Government began to forcibly relocate thousands of Cherokees from their homelands in Georgia to the Western territories. The event the Cherokees called "The Trail Where They Cried" meant their own loss of life, sovereignty, and property. Moreover, it allowed visions of Manifest Destiny to contradict the government's previous "civilization campaign" policy toward American Indians. The tortuous journey West was one of the final blows causing a division within the Cherokee nation itself, over civilization and identity, tradition and progress, east and west. The Trail of Tears also introduced an era of Indian removal that reshaped the face of Native America geographically, politically, economically, and socially. Engaging thematic chapters explore the events surrounding the Trail of Tears and the era of Indian removal, including the invention of the Cherokee alphabet, the conflict between the preservation of Cherokee culture and the call to assimilate, Andrew Jackson's "imperial presidency," and the negotiation of legislation and land treaties. Biographies of key figures, an annotated bibliography, and an extensive selection of primary documents round out the work.

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Amy H. Sturgis - The Trail of Tears and Indian Rem oval (2006).pdf

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Civilization of the American Indian - Colin Callow ay - The Western Abenakis of Vermont, 1600-1800; War, Migration, and the Survival of an Indian Peop le (1994).jpg

USA Books - Civilization of the American Indian - Colin Calloway -... Migration, and the Survival of an Indian People 1994.jpg

Calloway (history, Wyoming) draws on an impressive array of letters, journals, government documents, and other primary sources to recount how an Algonquian tribe on the periphery of the Iroquois Confederacy survived the first two centuries of white settlement. Annotation c. Book News, Inc., Portland, OR

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Civilization of the American Indian - Colin Callow ay - The Western Abenakis of Vermont, 1600-1800; War, Migration, and the Survival of an Indian Peop le (1994).pdf

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Erik R. Seeman - The Huron-Wendat Feast Of The Dea d; Indian-European Encounters In Early North Ameri ca (2011).jpg

USA Books - Erik R. Seeman - The Huron-Wendat Feast Of The Dead In...ndian-European Encounters In Early North America 2011.jpg

"Two thousand Wendat (Huron) Indians stood on the edge of an enormous burial pit... they held in their arms the bones of roughly seven hundred deceased friends and family members. The Wendats had lovingly scraped and cleaned the bones of the corpses that had decomposed on the scaffolds. They awaited only the signal from the master of the ritual to place the bones in the pit. This was the great Feast of the Dead."

Witnesses to these Wendat burial rituals were European colonists, French Jesuit missionaries in particular. Rather than being horrified by these unfamiliar native practices, Europeans recognized the parallels between them and their own understanding of death and human remains. Both groups believed that deceased souls traveled to the afterlife; both believed that elaborate mortuary rituals ensured the safe transit of the soul to the supernatural realm; and both believed in the power of human bones.

Appreciating each other's funerary practices allowed the Wendats and French colonists to find common ground where there seemingly would be none. Erik R. Seeman analyzes these encounters, using the Feast of the Dead as a metaphor for broader Indian-European relations in North America. His compelling narrative gives undergraduate students of early America and the Atlantic World a revealing glimpse into this fascinating -- and surprising -- meeting of cultures.

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Frances Densmore - Chippewa Customs (1979).jpg

Frances Densmore, born in 1867, was one of the first ethnologists to specialize in the study of American Indian music and culture. Her book, first published in 1929, remains an authoritative source for the tribal history, customs, legends, traditions, art, music, economy, and leisure activities of the Chippewa Indians of the United States and Canada.

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Frances Densmore - Chippewa Customs (1979).pdf

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Ingham Bruce - English Lakota Dictionary (2001).jpg

The Lakota language is estimated to be spoken by 20,000 people mainly in the states of North and South Dakota. It is reckoned to be the second largest native language in the US after Navajo. This dictionary of 12,000 entries aims to preserve Indian culture and at all points illustrate the use of words in examples, especially syntactic words, whose usage cannot be captured purely by giving an English equivalent. An introduction contains the phonetics, the grammar and the history of Lakota.

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Ingham Bruce - English Lakota Dictionary (2001).pdf

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J.W. Vaughn - Indian Fights New Facts on Seven Enc ounters (2002).jpg

In Indian Fights, J. W. Vaughn gives detailed accounts of the battles, careful descriptions of the battlefields, and interesting asides on the U.S. Army officers and soldiers serving in the West during and after the Civil War. This book provides answers to numerous questions that have long perplexed historians of the West.

Using a metal detector, Vaughn uncovered cartridge cases, bullets, and other debris marking battle conditions, allowing him to reconstruct many little-known battles in detail. He analyzes a number of engagements that occurred around Cheyenne Fork, Wyoming, a popular camping place on the old Bozeman Trail, comparing his findings with the mass of conflicting testimonies, government records, newspaper accounts, and other sources covering the battles.

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J.W. Vaughn - Indian Fights New Facts on Seven Enc ounters (2002).pdf

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Katarzyna Krępulec - Stanisław Supłatowicz, Niezwy kła biografia Sat-Okha (2004).jpg

Stanisław Supłatowicz, Sat-Okh (w języku shawnee Długie Pióro, ur. prawdopodobnie 15 kwietnia 1920 w Kanadzie, zm. 3 lipca 2003 w Gdańsku) − żołnierz AK, pisarz, gawędziarz, artysta.

Urodził się w osadzie Indian w dorzeczu rzeki Mackenzie w Kanadzie. Był synem polskiej uciekinierki z Syberii Stanisławy Supłatowicz, oraz wojennego wodza plemienia Szaunisów (Szawanezów) Leoo-Karko-Ono-Ma (Wysokiego Orła). Wychowywał się wśród Indian do 1936 roku. W 1937 roku przybył wraz z matką do Polski, gdzie zmuszony został do zmiany nazwiska na Stanisław Supłatowicz, matka w tworzonej wówczas metryce zmieniła część jego danych, w tym rok urodzenia i dane ojca, ukrywając jego indiańskie pochodzenie. Zamieszkał w Radomiu.

W czasie kampanii wrześniowej podjął naukę na tajnych kompletach, a po klęsce polskiej armii zaangażował się w działalność w SZP i ZWZ. W 1940 roku został aresztowany przez gestapo i skierowany do obozu koncentracyjnego w Auschwitz. W czasie transportu do obozu wyskoczył z wagonu bydlęcego i uciekł. W czasie ucieczki został ranny, ukrywał się następnie na wsi. Następnie został żołnierzem Armii Krajowej (pseud. Kozak), walczył w III batalionie 72 pułku piechoty AK w rejonie Częstochowy, w Okręgu AK "Jodła". Wielokrotnie ranny, za męstwo w walce odznaczony Krzyżem Walecznych.

Po wojnie za przynależność do AK został aresztowany i uwięziony. Po uwolnieniu przez wiele lat pływał jako marynarz na statkach Polskich Linii Oceanicznych, w tym na MS Batory. Osiadł na stałe w Gdańsku, założył rodzinę.

W 1958 roku zaczął pisać książki odnoszące się do swojej indiańskiej przeszłości, tłumaczone na wiele języków świata. W latach 70. uczestnik licznych spotkań autorskich i telewizyjnych programów dla młodzieży ("Teleranek", "Ekran z bratkiem"). Uważany za jednego z pionierów ruchu indianistów w Polsce, współtwórcę i czołową postać nieformalnego Polskiego Ruchu Przyjaciół Indian (PRPI). Zajmował się także wyrobem indiańskiego rękodzieła, malował, pisał też wspólnie z Yackta-Oya.

Zmarł 3 lipca 2003 roku w Szpitalu Marynarki Wojennej w Gdańsku, a 8 lipca został pochowany na cmentarzu "Srebrzysko".

Prywatne Muzeum Indian Ameryki Północnej im. Sat-Okha znajduje się w Wymysłowie niedaleko Tucholi k. Chojnic.

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Katarzyna Krępulec - Stanisław Supłatowicz, Niezwy kła biografia Sat-Okha (2004).pdf

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Jo Ella Powell Exley - Frontier Blood, Saga of the Parker Family (1991).jpg

Captivity diaries, those often brutal accounts of settlers taken prisoner by American Indians, might be considered a genre in their own right. Drawing heavily on such first-person testimonies, Exley (editor of Texas Tears, Texas Sunshine: Voices of Frontier Women) traces the Parker family's trajectory, from Elder John (born in 1758) to his great-grandson Quanah Parker, a Comanche war chief. This family had a particular impact on the development of Texas and the West and was especially determined to make a life there, despite the likelihood of violence. Rachel Parker, captured in 1836 by raiding Comanches and brutally tortured along with her young son, is eventually rescued. Nine-year-old Cynthia Ann, also kidnapped, makes a life among the Comanches and bears Quanah and two other children. After 24 years, Cynthia Ann is returned to her white family but never adjusts. The rest of the book tells the story of Quanah, who ultimately negotiates peace with the white settlers. His speech (in English) at his mother's graveside underlines the changed attitude of the former war chief: "Forty years ago my mother died. She captured by Comanches.... Love Indian and wild life so well no want to go back to white folks.... I love my mother. I like white people. Got great heart. I want my people follow after white way, get educate, know work, make living when payments stop." Vivid, unsparing accounts, much insight into the pioneer experience and the details of early interracial relations will make this book popular among devotees of the history of the American West. 12 b&w photos.

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Jo Ella Powell Exley - Frontier Blood, Saga of the Parker Family (1991).pdf

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Klaus Benesch; Kerstin Schmidt - Space in America, Theory History Culture (2005).jpg

Space in America Theory History Culture America's sense of space has always been tied to what Hayden White called the "narrativization" of real events. If the awe-inspiring manifestations of nature in America (Niagara Falls, Virginia's Natural Bridge, the Grand Canyon, etc.) were often used as a foil for projecting utopian visions and idealizations of the nation's exceptional place among the nations of the world, the rapid technological progress and its concomitant appropriation of natural spaces served equally well, as David Nye argues, to promote the dominant cultural idiom of exploration and conquest. From the beginning, American attitudes towards space were thus utterly contradictory if not paradoxical; a paradox that scholars tried to capture in such hybrid concepts as the "middle landscape" (Leo Marx), an "engineered New Earth" (Cecelia Tichi), or the "technological sublime" (David Nye).Not only was America's concept of space paradoxical, it has always also been a contested terrain, a site of continuous social and cultural conflict. Many foundational issues in American history (the dislocation of Native and African Americans, the geo-political implications of nation-building, immigration and transmigration, the increasing division and "clustering" of contemporary American society, etc.) involve differing ideals and notions of space. Quite literally, space and its various ideological appropriations formed the arena where America's search for identity (national, political, cultural) has been staged. If American democracy, as Frederick Jackson Turner claimed, "is born of free land," then its history may well be defined as the history of the fierce struggles to gain and maintain power over both the geographical, social and political spaces of America and its concomitant narratives. The number and range of topics, interests, and critical approaches of the essays gathered here open up exciting new avenues of inquiry into the tangled, contentious relations of space in America. Topics include: Theories of Space ¯ Landscape / Nature ¯ Technoscape / Architecture / Urban Utopia ¯ Literature ¯ Performance / Film / Visual Arts

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Klaus Benesch; Kerstin Schmidt - Space in America, Theory History Culture (2005).pdf

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Landmark Events in Native American History - Micha el L. Lawson - Little Bighorn, Winning the battle, Losing the War (2007).jpg

USA Books - Landmark Events in Native American History - Michael L...ttle Bighorn, Winning the battle, Losing the War 2007.jpg

On June 25, 1876, the United States Army suffered the worst defeat of all its battles with Native Americans. Allied Sioux and Northern Cheyenne warriors successfully turned back a surprise attack on their village near the Little Bighorn River in Montana. Killed in the battle were Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, the colorful and controversial commanding officer of the 7th Cavalry Regiment, and 267 men under his command. Little Bighorn traces the events that led to this historic confrontation, which, though a great tactical victory for the Native American warriors and the families they fought to protect, also set in motion a series of negative events for the Sioux and their allies.

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Landmark Events in Native American History - Micha el L. Lawson - Little Bighorn, Winning the battle, Losing the War (2007).pdf

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Lawrence Alan Rosenwald - Multilingual America, La nguage and the Making of American Literature (2008 ).jpg

Throughout its history, America has been the scene of multiple encounters between communities speaking different languages. Literature has long sought to represent these encounters in various ways, from James Fenimore Cooper's frontier fictions to the Jewish-American writers who popularised Yiddish as a highly influential modern vernacular. While other studies have concentrated on isolated parts of this history, Lawrence Rosenwald's book is the first to consider the whole story of linguistic representation in American literature, and to consider as well how multilingual fictions can be translated and incorporated into a national literary history. He uses case studies to analyse the most important kinds of linguistic encounters, such as those between Europeans and Native Americans, those between slaveholders and African slaves, and those between immigrants and American citizens. This ambitious, engaging book is an important contribution to the study of American literature, history and culture.

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Lawrence Alan Rosenwald - Multilingual America, La nguage and the Making of American Literature (2008 ).pdf

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Linda Barrington - The Other Side Of The Frontier, Economic Explorations Into Native American Histor y (1998).jpg

USA Books - Linda Barrington - The Other Side Of The Frontier, Eco...onomic Explorations Into Native American History 1998.jpg

A collection of essays by renowned scholars of Native American economic history, The Other Side of the Frontier presents one of the first in-depth studies of the complex interaction between the history of Native American economic development and the economic development of the United States at large. Although recent trends in the field of economics have encouraged the study of minority groups such as Asians and African Americans, little work has been done in Native American economic history. This text fills an existing gap in economic history literature and will help students come to a richer understanding of the effects that U.S. economic policy has had on the culture and development of its indigenous peoples.

About the Author
Linda Barrington is assistant professor of economics at Barnard College.

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Linda Barrington - The Other Side Of The Frontier, Economic Explorations Into Native American Histor y (1998).pdf

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Największe bitwy XX wieku 12 - Jerzy Biziewski - P ustynna Burza cz.1 (1994).jpg

I wojna w Zatoce Perskiej – konflikt wojenny rozpoczęty zbrojnym najazdem Iraku na Kuwejt 2 sierpnia 1990 roku i zakończony pokonaniem Iraku przez międzynarodową koalicję wiosną 1991 roku. Określana w mediach jako "Pustynna Burza" (Desert Storm), choć był to kryptonim tylko jednej z kilku operacji przeprowadzonych podczas tej wojny.

Po wojnie z Iranem (1980-1988) gospodarka Iraku poważnie ucierpiała. Ponad 80 miliardowe długi były nie do zwrócenia. Prezydent Iraku Saddam Husajn powoływał się jednak przede wszystkim na historyczne zaszłości między Kuwejtem a Irakiem. Faktem jest, iż terytorium Kuwejtu było pod władzą osmańską z dowództwem w Basrze, jednak faktyczną władzę sprawowali w Kuwejcie Brytyjczycy. Kuwejt bowiem, od 1899, pozostając formalnie w granicach Imperium Osmańskiego, stał się protektoratem brytyjskim, a od 1918 roku terytorium mandatowym Wielkiej Brytanii. Jednym z głównych powodów agresji Iraku na Kuwejt była również kwestia dostępu do kuwejckich złóż ropy naftowej, które są po Arabii Saudyjskiej największymi złożami tego surowca na świecie. Husajn wykorzystał fakt, że na arenie międzynarodowej nastąpiły znaczące zmiany (upadek ZSRR, zjednoczenie Niemiec). Nie liczył się on z możliwością zdecydowanej międzynarodowej kontrakcji w odpowiedzi na podbój Kuwejtu. Jednak świat zareagował negatywnie niemal jednomyślnie. 6 sierpnia Rada Bezpieczeństwa ONZ nałożyła rezolucję nr 661, która zakazywała handlu z Irakiem, a także zawieszono połączenia lotnicze i zamrożono aktywa irackiego rządu za granicą. Powołano też specjalną komisję nadzorująca sankcję.

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Największe bitwy XX wieku 13 - Jerzy Biziewski - P ustynna Burza cz.2 (1994).jpg

Główną rolę w likwidacji skutków agresji miały odegrać Stany Zjednoczone, których zaangażowanie było zgodne z doktryną Cartera. Całość operacji miała odbyć się pod sztandarem ONZ. Przeprowadzono dwie akcje: pierwsza miała kryptonim "Pustynna Tarcza" (od 7 sierpnia 1990 – miała to być ochrona zagrożonej przez Saddama Husajna Arabii Saudyjskiej). ONZ po licznych ostrzeżeniach wobec Iraku postawiła ultimatum wycofania się wojsk irackich z Kuwejtu do 15 stycznia 1991.

Po upływie terminu ultimatum rozpoczęła się operacja wojskowa – "Pustynna Burza" (od 17 stycznia 1991) oraz jej dalsza część "Pustynny Miecz". Były także inne akcje, jak np. Instant Thunder ("Nagły Grom") – akcja nalotów amerykańskich na Irak. 25 lutego generał Norman Schwarzkopf poprowadził ofensywę lądową, która trwała trzy dni. 28 lutego 1991 roku prezydent George H. W. Bush ogłosił zwycięskie zakończenie wojny i wyzwolenie Kuwejtu, w którym jednak nie wprowadzono demokratycznych reform. 3 marca Saddam Husajn przyjął warunki rozejmu[2].

Irak po przegranej spotkał się z wieloma sankcjami nałożonymi przez ONZ, boleśnie odczuwanymi przez Irakijczyków przez długi czas. Wprowadzono drastyczne obniżenie sprzedaży irackiej ropy naftowej. Irak zobowiązany był do wypłacenia olbrzymich odszkodowań za zniszczenia spowodowane w Kuwejcie. Nałożono również embargo na handel i wprowadzono nadzór międzynarodowy z ramienia ONZ. Ponadto zmuszono Irak do zniszczenia broni masowego rażenia i powołano na północy i południu kraju strefy wyłączone dla lotnictwa irackiego dla ochrony odpowiednio Kurdów i Szyitów.

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Noeleen Mcilvenna - A very Mutinous People. The St ruggle for North Carolina 1660-1713 (2009).jpg

Historians have often glorified eighteenth-century Virginia planters' philosophical debates about the meaning of American liberty. But according to Noeleen McIlvenna, the true exemplars of egalitarian political values had fled Virginia's plantation society late in the seventeenth century to create the first successful European colony in the Albemarle, in present-day North Carolina.

Making their way through the Great Dismal Swamp, runaway servants from Virginia joined other renegades to establish a free society along the most inaccessible Atlantic coastline of North America. They created a new community on the banks of Albemarle Sound, maintaining peace with neighboring Native Americans, upholding the egalitarian values of the English Revolution, and ignoring the laws of the mother country.

Tapping into previously unused documents, McIlvenna explains how North Carolina's first planters struggled to impose a plantation society upon the settlers and how those early small farmers, defending a wide franchise and religious toleration, steadfastly resisted. She contends that the story of the Albemarle colony is a microcosm of the greater process by which a conglomeration of loosely settled, politically autonomous communities eventually succumbed to hierarchical social structures and elite rule. Highlighting the relationship between settlers and Native Americans, this study leads to a surprising new interpretation of the Tuscarora War.

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Noeleen Mcilvenna - A very Mutinous People. The St ruggle for North Carolina 1660-1713 (2009).pdf

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Ohio Historical Society - American Indian tribes o f Ohio 1654-1843.jpg

Did you know the name "Ohio" is an Iroquoian Indian word? It came from the Seneca name for the Ohio River, Ohiyo, which means "it is beautiful." The Senecas were not the original inhabitants of Ohio, however. The Indian tribes of the Ohio Valley were decimated by smallpox and other European diseases before the Europeans had even met them, and Algonquian and Iroquoian tribes from neighboring regions moved into Ohio as European colonization forced them from their original homes. Only a few of the tribes who were living in Ohio before 1492 still survive today.

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Ohio Historical Society - American Indian tribes o f Ohio 1654-1843.pdf

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Pablo Mitchell - Coyote Nation, Sexuality, Race, a nd Conquest in Modernizing New Mexico, 1880-1920 ( 2005).jpg

With the arrival of the transcontinental railroad in the 1880s came the emergence of a modern and profoundly multicultural New Mexico. Native Americans, working-class Mexicans, elite Hispanos, and black and white newcomers all commingled and interacted in the territory in ways that had not been previously possible. But what did it mean to be white in this multiethnic milieu? And how did ideas of sexuality and racial supremacy shape ideas of citizenry and determine who would govern the region?

Coyote Nation considers these questions as it explores how New Mexicans evaluated and categorized racial identities through bodily practices. Where ethnic groups were numerous and—in the wake of miscegenation—often difficult to discern, the ways one dressed, bathed, spoke, gestured, or even stood were largely instrumental in conveying one's race. Even such practices as cutting one's hair, shopping, drinking alcohol, or embalming a deceased loved one could inextricably link a person to a very specific racial identity.

A fascinating history of an extraordinarily plural and polyglot region, Coyote Nation will be of value to historians of race and ethnicity in American culture.

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